From Paraffin to Natural Waxes: A Review of Lignocellulosic Fire-Starters and Their Performance

Solid firelighters are used to ignite wood fuels, yet direct evidence on wax-coated and wax-infused lignocellulosic products remains limited. This review evaluates paraffin, beeswax, stearin, stearic acid, and candle-wax formulations in wood-wool and wood-shaving firelighters, including one commercial wood-shaving product made from Western red cedar (Thuja plicata). Direct firelighter studies reported a black-carbon emission factor of about 150 mg MJ−1 for kerosene-based products and attributed 78–97% of black-carbon emissions to the firelighter in most tested fuel cases. In biomass–stearic-acid firelighters, the shortest ignition time was 17 s, the longest burn duration 1423 s, and the lowest post-combustion residue 6.44%, with the longest burn duration and lowest residue obtained with the same sawdust formulation. Related studies showed lower moisture gain in paraffin-treated lignocellulosic materials and up to 70.5% lower tangential swelling after beeswax treatment. Candle studies reported formulation-dependent black carbon, PM2.5, VOC, and PAH emissions. Life-cycle evidence showed that environmental sustainability varied with raw-material source, production route, and scenario. The reviewed evidence identifies stearic-acid-based coatings as candidates for lower-impact firelighter development, but direct comparison with paraffin and beeswax on the same substrate is still required. Further controlled testing should compare ignition, burn duration, moisture resistance, residue, emissions, and firelighter-specific environmental impacts under matched substrate, coating, moisture, and ignition conditions.