Analysing the Dynamic Relationship between Foreign Direct Investment, Trade Openness, and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Global Panel with Income-Group Heterogeneity

IntroductionOver the past several decades, globalization has fundamentally restructured the global economic architecture.Beyond the mere expansion of cross-border trade, this era has introduced complex structural phenomena such as deindustrialization, export-led growth paradigms, and deepening regional integration.Within this framework, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) and trade openness are viewed as primary conduits for productivity diffusion and technological upgrading.For policymakers, these channels represent indispensable vehicles for achieving sustainable development and enhancing international competitiveness.FDI serves as a critical source of external financing and technology transfer, introducing