Spatially deterministic dual-grid clustering for energy-efficient wireless sensor networks in internet of things monitoring

The LEACH protocol remains a foundational clustering algorithm for wireless sensor networks, yet random cluster head selection can produce uneven energy consumption and premature spatial degradation.This paper proposed G 2 LEACH, a dual-grid extension that separates fine-grained measurement coverage into micro-areas from coarse-grained cluster head coverage in a Grid of Head Areas (GHA).Six configurations were evaluated with 1200 static nodes over 100 independent cluster head election runs in two deployment scenarios.In the 1000 × 1000 m scenario, mean First Node Dead remained 1.00-1.03rounds, while mean Half Nodes Alive increased from 11.0 to 59.5-116.4rounds (+440% to +958%) and mean Last Node Dead increased from 444.6 to 830.4-932.6 rounds (+87% to +110%).In the 100 × 100 m scenario, G 2 LEACH-o2-v2 increased mean First Node Dead from 637.9 to 948.8 rounds (+48.7%)but reduced Half Nodes Alive and Last Node Dead by 2.1% and 2.3%, respectively.The results show that fixed spatial organization provides its strongest benefit under long-range multipath propagation, while individual variants exhibit objective-dependent trade-offs.