Stress biology of Cannabis sativa regulating cannabinoid and terpene biosynthesis at physiological, molecular and metabolic levels

Cannabis sativa L. is a valuable crop in the medical and industrial fields that possesses several unique secondary metabolites, including cannabinoids and terpenes, that play a role in the therapeutic effects and quality of Cannabis. The number of cannabinoids and terpenes produced is affected by many environmental stressors, making Cannabis an excellent model for understanding how various stressors influence metabolic processes through hormonal regulation. This review combines all the current information available on the physiological, molecular and metabolic responses of Cannabis sativa to different stressors such as drought, salinity, high temperatures, low temperatures, nutrient deficiencies, light stress and pathogen pressure. The changes caused by environmental stresses on photosynthesis, water status and the use of hormones in the development of glandular trichomes and the flux of secondary metabolites are examined closely. Also, the molecular responses to these changes, with attention given to gene networks that respond to stress, transcription factors that mediate stress responses and the pathways that regulate different enzymes involved with the cannabinoid and terpene biosynthetic pathways, are examined. The review reveals the significance of the relationship between the metabolic processes associated with primary and secondary metabolites, as well as how an organism’s genetic expression can be affected by environmental elements. The comprehensive approach to incorporating these different levels of view expands the understanding of stress physiology of C. sativa and provides an overview of the major research areas that need to be expanded to improve C. sativa response to stressors and phytochemical optimization due to climate change. The novelty of this review lies in its integrated synthesis of physiological, hormonal, molecular and metabolic mechanisms linking environmental stress with cannabinoid and terpene biosynthesis in C. sativa, while identifying key gaps in stress intensity–metabolite relationships, terpene regulation, stressor interactions and high-altitude responses that require multi-omics investigation.