Labour-market antitrust in Europe: an empirical analysis

The article provides a systematic empirical analysis of labour-market antitrust enforcement in Europe. Based on a dataset of 70 investigations opened by European competition authorities up to 15 September 2026, it maps the historical development, geographic spread, substantive focus, procedural features, and policy rationales of this rapidly expanding enforcement field. The empirical analysis shows that labour-market antitrust has evolved from a niche issue into a mainstream enforcement priority. Authorities in 22 jurisdictions have now intervened. Outcomes are often severe, with total fines exceeding €1 billion. No-poach agreements are by far the most frequently investigated labour-market practice, followed by exchanges of competitively sensitive information and wage fixing. The data also reveal a strong tendency to treat labour-market restraints as by-object infringements, while attempts to justify such conduct have rarely succeeded. Procedurally, cases are driven primarily by ex officio investigations and complaints rather than leniency applications. Overall, from a compliance perspective, the article shows that labour-market arrangements in Europe should now be treated with the same degree of attention as traditional horizontal restraints in product and service markets.