Hillfort investigations in Läänemaa, western Estonia: Kedre, Kullamaa and Palivere

The article gives a survey of the 2025 investigation of the Kedre, Kullamaa, and Palivere hill forts in Läänemaa, western Estonia. The research aimed to provide an overview of their chronology and time of desertion. Both in Kedre and Kullamaa, one trench was made in the courtyard and another on the rampart, where in both cases two construction stages could be observed. In Kedre, an oval cellar pit and stove remains of a late 12th – early 13th century house were found. Kullamaa hill fort, with an intensive Final Iron Age cultural layer, belonged to the papal legate from 1225 to the early 1230s, but some finds indicate its later use. Both strongholds were founded in the second half of the 11th or 12th century and were deserted in the middle or second half of the 13th century, i.e. remaining in use also after the conquest and Christianisation. The trench at the sand rampart of the large but unfinished Palivere hill fort contained several chars from burnt fortifications. 14C dates indicate construction of the site between 1220 and 1400 – either in the context of the Estonian uprising of 1222–1224, or, more likely, during the Livonian civil war of 1297–1299 or the big Estonian uprising of 1343. Information was gained about labour division in the construction of the rampart: different communities were charged with different responsibilities. While most had begun their work and some had even finished the timber structures, other groups may not have even started yet. Excavation results indicate continued use of Läänemaa hill forts after the Crusades and Christianisation in the 13th century.