Life cycle assessment of the Garissa solar PV plant: evaluating the environmental sustainability of utility-scale solar in Kenya

Abstract Kenya’s transition to low-carbon energy systems has accelerated the deployment of utility-scale solar photovoltaic projects, yet questions remain about their long-term environmental sustainability. This study presents a cradle-to-grave life cycle assessment of the Garissa Solar PV Plant, the largest grid-connected solar facility in East and Central Africa, to quantify its greenhouse gas emissions and identify environmental hotspots. Using an attributional LCA framework and a custom Excel-based model and region appropriate inventories, the study assessed emissions across manufacturing, transportation, operation, and end-of-life management under current national conditions. The results indicate the plant’s lifecycle intensity is 23.6 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹, substantially lower than fossil-based electricity generation (coal: 780–1095 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹; natural gas: 400–726 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹), and consistent with international benchmarks for utility-scale PV systems (typically 20–60 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹, depending on the technology, geography, and system boundaries). Lifecycle contributions are dominated by upstream stages: manufacturing, 17.27 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹ and balance of components, 5.85 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹; transport, 0.47 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹; and end-of-life, 0.0237 g CO₂-eq kWh⁻¹ under a conservative 100% landfill baseline. Although Garissa’s carbon profile aligns with international benchmarks, it reveals Kenya’s reliance on carbon-intensive global supply chains remains a key driver in upstream emissions. The study underscores the need for lifecycle-aligned policy reforms, including solar-specific recycling protocols, localised manufacturing strategies, and water-efficient maintenance practices in arid regions. It also anticipates future challenges posed by BESS, which could significantly increase lifecycle emissions. By providing Kenya’s first utility-scale solar LCA, this research offers critical insights for policymakers, developers, and researchers aiming to align solar expansion with climate and sustainability goals.