Global Associations of Income, Urbanization, and Inequality with Electric Vehicle Charger Density

Despite rapid growth in electric vehicle (EV) adoption, few studies have systematically quantified how national income, urbanization, and income inequality are jointly associated with EV charging infrastructure worldwide.To address this gap, this study analyzed cross-sectional data from 100 countries spanning all world regions and income groups.Results show that GDP per capita is the strongest correlate of charger density (beta = +0.49,p < 0.001), with high-income countries reporting an average of 81 chargers per 100,000 people, compared to fewer than 1 in low-income countries.Urbanization also showed a significant positive association (beta = +0.28,p = 0.002).The Gini index was independently and negatively associated with charger density (beta = -0.21,p = 0.010), indicating that higher income inequality is linked to lower infrastructure coverage even after accounting for GDP per capita and urbanization; because interaction (moderation) effects were not estimated in the final model, this result is reported as an independent association rather than as evidence that inequality moderates the effect of income.The regression model explained 61% of the variance in charger density, indicating that additional factors such as energy policy, land use, and public-private partnerships also matter.As a cross-sectional, observational analysis, these results identify associations rather than causal effects, and the study does not directly test whether charger availability increases EV adoption.Policy implications include the need for targeted investment, subsidies, and regulatory frameworks to avoid deepening mobility inequities.Overall, the findings suggest that the transition to clean transport is not only a technological and economic challenge but also a question of governance and equity.