Lead Contamination in Moroccan Spices Determined by Graphite Furnace Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (GFAAS): Exposure and Environmental Health Risk Assessment

ABSTRACT Spices are widely consumed in Morocco and may constitute a significant dietary source of toxic metals such as lead (Pb). This study assessed Pb contamination and associated health risks in six commonly consumed spices (turmeric, black pepper, paprika, cumin, ginger, and cinnamon) collected from Moroccan markets ( n = 200). Lead concentrations were determined using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) following acid digestion. Mean Pb levels ranged from 0.099 mg/kg (turmeric) to 1.246 mg/kg (cinnamon), with 9.1% of cinnamon samples and 2.7% of black pepper samples exceeding European regulatory limits. Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Target Hazard Quotient (THQ), and Carcinogenic Risk (CR) were calculated for adults and children. All THQ values were below unity, indicating no immediate non‐carcinogenic risk; however, cinnamon exhibited the highest THQ (4.07 × 10 − 2 for adults; 3.58 × 10 − 2 for children) and mean CR values slightly exceeding the lower threshold of concern (1.21 × 10 − 6 for adults; 1.07 × 10 − 6 for children). Children showed greater physiological vulnerability to lead exposure despite comparable or lower absolute risk values, owing to their developing organ systems and higher relative absorption rates. These findings highlight cinnamon and ginger as priority targets for monitoring and emphasize the need for strengthened regulatory oversight, good manufacturing practices, and consumer awareness to minimize chronic Pb exposure.