Investigation of the production process for plant-based meat using soybean pulp (okara) fermented by Bacillus subtilis

Abstract This study aimed to develop and evaluate a plant-based meat analogue formulated from agricultural by-products, particularly okara, within a circular economy framework. The formulation incorporated core ingredients including okara (soy pulp), red bean flour, edible mushrooms, and coconut oil, together with structural stabilisers and a seasoning system. A key feature of this research was the fermentation of okara using Bacillus subtilis , aimed at improving textural properties of this underutilised by-product. Experimental results demonstrated that fermentation substantially improved the product's texture, resulting in a more elastic structure (1.7-fold higher) than the non-fermented control. Overall, the developed formulation exhibited good structural integrity and colour and achieved a good sensory rating of 17.7 points on a 20-point scale, as assessed by the sensory panel. This research provides scientific insights into sustainable processing strategies for meat alternatives and highlights the potential of transforming okara into a value-added ingredient for the development of environmentally sustainable, plant-based foods.