A comparative legal analysis of migratory bird conservation along the African–Eurasian flyway

Despite decades of international agreements aimed at biodiversity conservation, millions of migratory birds continue to be illegally killed each year along the African-Eurasian flyway, particularly in the Mediterranean, posing a persistent challenge to global conservation efforts. We compared legal frameworks in 10 countries to determine how implementation gaps have emerged between conservation legislation and enforcement. Using purposive sampling and comparative legal analysis, we examined how international conservation conventions and EU directives have been translated into national legislation and implemented in practice. Our findings revealed a fragmented conservation governance system in which enforcement consistently lags behind legal commitments, contributing to continued biodiversity loss, including the 78% decline in the European turtle dove (Streptopelia turtur) since 1980. Across diverse legal and institutional settings, cultural traditions, economic incentives associated with hunting tourism, and lobbying pressures have repeatedly weakened compliance and enforcement. Although legal penalties range from modest administrative fines to criminal sanctions, inconsistent enforcement limits their deterrent effect. By identifying common patterns across multiple jurisdictions, we identified the institutional factors that sustain implementation gaps and argue that narrowing these gaps will require stronger political commitment, greater enforcement capacity, and explicit recognition of wildlife crime as a serious conservation and environmental offense.