Beyond the slash-and-burn narrative: evidence on forest and land fire drivers from oil palm enclaves in West Kalimantan, Indonesia

Abstract Forest and land fires in Indonesia are frequently attributed to oil palm expansion and slash-and-burn land clearing, yet the social and institutional dynamics underlying fire occurrence remain insufficiently understood. This study investigates the drivers of forest and land fires through case studies of two oil palm concessions in West Kalimantan, Indonesia, with particular attention to enclave areas within concession boundaries. Data was collected through semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, field observations, document analysis, and geographic information system (GIS) mapping of burned sites. The findings show that, across the two case-study oil palm concessions in West Kalimantan, all recorded fire events were located within enclave areas rather than company-managed oil palm plantation areas. Fires were primarily associated with slash-and-burn practices by local communities, initially for rice cultivation. Ground verification confirmed that about 1047 hectares of burned land were located in these enclaves. Post-fire analysis shows that many burned areas were later converted into smallholder oil palm plantations, reflecting the interaction between traditional land clearing and changing rural livelihood strategies. The results suggest that unclear governance arrangements surrounding enclave areas contribute to persistent fire risk in plantation landscapes. Clarifying the spatial and legal status of enclave lands, including their exclusion from concession boundaries, could improve accountability and strengthen fire management among companies, communities, and local authorities.