Recent applications of neural interfaces in musculoskeletal disorders: from rehabilitation to regeneration

Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) represent a primary cause of global long-term disability, stemming from musculoskeletal tissue damage or impaired neural motor and homeostatic regulation. The musculoskeletal system participates in a bidirectional neuro-musculoskeletal-immune network, explaining why conventional tissue repair and mechanical rehabilitation often fail to fully restore tissue and motor function. Neural interface (NI)-based bioelectronic medicine provides a precise, translational strategy to reconstruct disrupted neural commands, remodel abnormal sensory pathways, and regulate local inflammation and metabolism for MSD recovery. This review comprehensively summarizes recent NI applications in diverse MSDs, including structural injuries and degenerative diseases, as well as functional deficits induced by spinal cord injury, stroke and peripheral nerve damage. We highlight the clinical transition from open-loop stimulation and passive assistive devices to closed-loop adaptive neuromodulation systems for motor control, sensory restoration and pain relief, alongside emerging bioelectronic regenerative strategies. We further discuss advanced NI material and system designs, covering multimodal sensing, low-latency neuromorphic computing and energy-autonomous modules. Key translational barriers and a roadmap for next-generation regenerative MSD therapies are finally outlined.