Underforest economy participation and multidimensional child welfare in rural China: evidence from mountainous household survey data

Introduction This study examines the relationship between household participation in the underforest economy and multidimensional child welfare in rural China. Methods We use a purposive survey of 786 households with children aged 7–15 in five mountainous counties of Hunan Province, conducted in 2023. We construct a welfare index covering education, health, mental well-being, care, and development opportunities. The analysis uses regression models with village-clustered standard errors, alternative welfare measures and specifications, propensity score matching, inverse-probability-weighted regression adjustment, and instrumental-variable estimation based on historical forestry-station accessibility. Results Underforest participation is associated with a 0.141-unit increase in the welfare index, equivalent to 0.383 standard deviations. Positive associations are found for education, health, mental well-being, and care; the estimate for development opportunities is positive but statistically imprecise. The baseline association remains stable across robustness checks. Historical forestry-station accessibility predicts participation, and the 2SLS estimates are positive under both county and township fixed effects. Participating households report higher income and education spending, greater parental local employment and companionship, and lower parental migration. Children spend 0.576 additional hours per week on household work/help. Discussion The findings are consistent with resource-enhancing and care-retention pathways linking underforest participation to child welfare, alongside a time-allocation trade-off. Forest livelihood programs should consider children’s schooling, care, and work demands when assessing household benefits.