Vulture populations, seasonal dynamics, and conservation threats in the Urban landscape: a case study in Jimma, Southwest Ethiopia

Vultures play an indispensable ecological role in maintaining ecosystem balance through the rapid removal of carrion and the provision of critical ecosystem services. Of the 16 Old World vulture species, Africa supports 11, with eight species recorded in Ethiopia. However, urbanization and associated anthropogenic pressures may threaten these essential scavengers. This study assessed vulture species composition, observed abundance, seasonal variation, and conservation threats in Jimma City, southwestern Ethiopia, during the dry season (January–March) and wet season (May–July) of 2022. Data were collected through systematic field observations, questionnaire surveys, and key informant interviews and were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Four globally threatened species were recorded: hooded, white-backed, rüppell’s griffon, and lappet-faced vultures, underscoring the urgent need for targeted conservation interventions. Vulture counts varied significantly between seasons ( P < 0.001), with higher counts recorded during the wet season. Mean dry-season counts were 264 ± 9 for hooded, 191 ± 29 for African white-backed, 17 ± 3 for Rüppell’s griffon, and 4 ± 1 for lappet-faced vultures. The corresponding wet-season counts were 408 ± 57, 266 ± 25, 29 ± 4, and 7 ± 1, respectively. The hooded vulture had the highest relative abundance, accounting for 57% of recorded observations, whereas the lappet-faced vulture accounted for 1%. Observed counts also differed significantly among study sites ( P < 0.001). Key threats identified include electric shock associated with power-line infrastructure, habitat loss, poisoning, and limited public awareness. These findings highlight the vulnerability of urban vulture populations and emphasize the need for integrated conservation strategies that prioritize habitat protection, incorporate urban planning considerations, and actively engage local stakeholders.