A macro-model for smart city development using citizens’ perspective: evidence from Indian smart cities

Purpose This study aims to develop and empirically validate a citizen-centric macro-model for smart city development (SCD) in the Indian context. A climate-responsive conceptual overlay, derived from literature synthesis, is presented alongside the tested model but is not itself empirically tested. The study addresses the technology-centric construction of existing smart city frameworks and the limited integration of citizen-defined, cross-cutting property of urban systems, asking citizens how smart city dimensions relate to SCD and quality of life (QOL), and how citizen participation (CP) and support orientation (SO) moderate these relationships. Design/methodology/approach A sequential mixed-methods design is used. Phase 1 applies thematic analysis to 41 citizen interviews across 22 Indian smart cities, yielding 19 factors organised into eight aggregate dimensions; a ninth dimension (smart living) is added from the literature, and climate-responsive factors are integrated through literature synthesis. Phase 2 tests the macro-model through PLS-SEM on primary survey data from 491 respondents, with CP and SO as moderators. Findings The structural model establishes a strong pathway from SCD to QOL, with smart people as the strongest direct predictor of SCD. Smart environment and smart sustainable design, the two dimensions most closely linked to climate responsiveness in the conceptual integration, are non-significant as direct predictors. Smart environment is significant only at high levels of both CP and SO, while smart sustainable design is significant only at high levels of SO. CP moderates the majority of dimensional effects, and combined CP + SO moderation produces the largest explanatory gain, repositioning smart city dimensional effects as conditional rather than linear-additive. Research limitations/implications The cross-sectional Indian design limits causal inference and cross-national generalisability. The findings reposition smart cities as citizen-conditioned sociotechnical systems and establish moderation analysis as a substantive theoretical commitment. Practical implications Technical smart city investments must be coupled with CP mechanisms. The dimensions most closely associated with climate responsiveness require both participatory engagement and institutional support to deliver citizen-perceived value. The evaluation frameworks should shift from aggregate output metrics to citizen-reported outcomes. Originality/value This study offers the first citizen-derived smart city macro-model for the Indian context, validated through PLS-SEM with participation and institution-based moderators; this tested model constitutes the study’s empirical contribution. The accompanying climate-responsive integration is a conceptual overlay derived from literature synthesis, offered as a framework for future testing rather than as a validated result.