Study on the swearing patterns of Welsh speakers across sociolinguistic variables, and the semantic domains of Welsh expletives

Abstract Profanity is well-studied across many disciplines, including linguistics, yet Welsh expletives have received little scholarly attention. Furthermore, the Welsh language is sometimes described as an innocent or holy language , which does not contain swearwords. This article addresses the research gap by analysing Welsh swearing, focusing on gender differences, sociolinguistic variables, categories, semantic fields, and whether Welsh speakers prefer traditional or Anglicised expletives. Data were collected via qualitative and quantitative methods: an open questionnaire and a Likert-scale survey assessing the offensiveness of swearwords and expressions. Both questionnaires were shared online and were available in both Welsh and English. The data were analysed through thematic analysis, and the Likert Scale results are shown via Marimekko charts. The results identify significant differences in the perceptions and usage of expletives across genders; women perceive them as more context-dependent and emotionally nuanced in functions, men are generally more neutral towards them, and non-binary and gender-neutral participants largely view swearing as a normal aspect of language. Both middle- and working-class participants consider swearwords unprofessional. The major themes across the dataset were difficult to tease apart, although swearing in informal settings is common across ages, with emotionally charged use more prevalent among older groups.