Do schools narrow the socioeconomic digital divide? Meta-analytic evidence from ICILS 2023

Abstract Second-level digital divides, often studied as the association between socioeconomic status (SES) and digital competence, remain a central concern in digital educational research. Whereas many countries have invested substantially in school digitalization, little is known about which school-level factors can mitigate SES-related disparities in digital competence. We addressed this gap using large-scale and representative data from the International Computer and Information Literacy Study (ICILS) 2023. Employing a two-step meta-analytic approach, country-specific multilevel models were first estimated and subsequently synthesized to quantify average effects and cross-national variation. Results indicated a positive, moderate association between SES and digital competence (β = 17.73, SE = 0.93, 95% CI [15.84, 19.61]). Several digital classroom practices, including the use of general information and communication technology (ICT) applications, inquiry-based teaching, and teachers’ use of utility software were positively related to students’ digital competence. Crucially, the SES-digital competence association was not moderated by classroom practices or teacher- or school-level factors. Whereas digital media integration was linked to higher overall levels of digital competence, it did not systematically reduce socioeconomic disparities. These findings suggest that digital instructional practices function primarily as performance-enhancing rather than equity-enhancing mechanisms. For research in digital education, the results highlight the importance of distinguishing between average learning gains and distributional effects. If digital competence is to serve as a lever for educational equity, targeted and structural interventions may be required beyond general digitalization strategies.