Exploring digital inclusion and mathematics achievement in South Africa with reference to TIMSS 2023

Abstract Digital technologies have become integral to education systems worldwide, yet unequal access, capabilities and institutional conditions continue to shape their educational use. This study examined associations between digital inclusion and mathematics achievement among Grade 5 and Grade 9 learners in South Africa using TIMSS 2023 data. Guided by Tate and Warschauer’s digital inclusion framework, the analysis considered indicators of access, self-reported digital skills and meaningful use at learner and contextual levels. Separate two-level models were estimated for each grade, with learners nested within schools, and socioeconomic status was accounted for through Home Educational Resources at Level 1 and School Socioeconomic Composition at Level 2. Personal ownership of a computer or tablet was negatively associated with mathematics achievement in both grades, whereas self-reported information retrieval and digital text-editing skills showed positive associations. At Level 2, school-mediated access to digital devices and teacher preparedness indicators were also associated with mathematics achievement. Contextual associations were generally larger in the Grade 5 model, which also showed a greater reduction in residual Level 2 variance than the Grade 9 model. These cross-grade differences are descriptive and should not be interpreted as evidence of developmental or causal mechanisms. Overall, the findings support a multidimensional view of digital inclusion in which access, functional digital capabilities and institutional context are considered together when examining mathematics achievement.