Prevalence and associated risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in poultry in africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Toxoplasma gondii is a zoonotic parasite of public health importance, and poultry serve as intermediate hosts and potential indicators of environmental contamination. In Africa, exposure may be influenced by free-range production systems and contact with environments contaminated by felid faeces. Poultry may also contribute to foodborne transmission when infected meat is consumed raw or inadequately cooked. However, evidence on the prevalence of T. gondii infection in African poultry remains fragmented, and previous reviews of food-animal toxoplasmosis have not specifically synthesised poultry prevalence estimates and associated risk factors. This study aimed to estimate the pooled prevalence of T. gondii infection in poultry across Africa, explore sources of between-study heterogeneity, and assess associated risk factors. Following the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus and African Journals Online (AJOL) were searched for studies published between 1 January 2000 and 30 April 2026. Twenty-one studies comprising 37 study arms and 5,580 poultry from 14 African countries were included. The pooled prevalence of T. gondii infection was 29.0% (95% CI 19.0–41.0%), with substantial between-study heterogeneity (I² = 95.8%). Prevalence estimates were highest in East Africa at 46.0% (95% CI 30.0–64.0%), followed by Central Africa at 34.0% (95% CI 16.0–57.0%), North Africa at 28.0% (95% CI 13.0–49.0%) and West Africa at 18.0% (95% CI 8.0–37.0%). Backyard chickens had a pooled prevalence of 57.0% (95% CI 34.0–78.0%), while pigeons had the lowest estimate at 7.0% (95% CI 0.0–58.0%). Diagnostic method was a significant moderator of prevalence estimates (QM = 30.65, p < 0.0001). The latex agglutination test (LAT) was associated with higher prevalence estimates than the direct agglutination test (DAT) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). In multivariable meta-regression, LAT was the only statistically significant individual predictor relative to DAT (β = 3.72, p = 0.0055), whereas study year and poultry type were not significant predictors. The risk-factor analysis produced an overall pooled odds ratio of 3.39 (95% CI 1.11–10.37; I² = 86.9%) across 18 observations from six independent studies. This estimate combined heterogeneous risk factors, including age, breed, water source, management practices and host exposure. Its statistical significance was not maintained when the single contributing study of moderate methodological quality was excluded. T. gondii infection is common in African poultry, although prevalence estimates vary substantially across studies. Diagnostic method contributed to this heterogeneity. Risk-factor findings suggest that poultry characteristics, management practices, water sources and exposure to other hosts may be relevant to infection risk, but the limited number of contributing studies warrants caution in interpreting these associations. Strengthening surveillance, improving poultry management and promoting food safety practices may help reduce the public health risks associated with poultry-borne toxoplasmosis in Africa.