Can Artificial Intelligence (AI) Design Better Antibodies? Advances and Future Prospects

Anthelmintic resistance is a considered to be pose threat to cattle health and profitability of livestock. This review mainly focuses on the important factors that speed up the development of resistance to anthelmintics by cattle, of which three most common gastrointestinal nematodes are Ostertagia ostertagi, Cooperia species, and Haemonchus placei. The biological and physiologicalmechanisms that are reason for these parasites to withstand exposure mainly involves: mutations at target site (such as β-tubulin gene alterations), P-glycoprotein efflux pumps upregulations, and enhancement of drug metabolismvia detoxifying enzymes. These adaptations mainly help in development of resistance to three important primary anthelmintic classes like benzimidazoles, macrocyclic lactones, and nicotinic agonists. Additionally, some farm management practices which includes prophylactic deworming of entire herd, underdosing of drugs, improper route of drug application, and the elimination of refugiaseverely exacerbate selective pressure. Failing to control the development of resistance results in severe subclinical production loses, increased mortality rates, and economic losses. To enhance the future livestock sustainability, a transition toward Integrated Parasite Management (IPM) is very important. This approach mainly focuses on Targeted Selective Treatment (TST), monitoring of the faecal sample by via Faecal Egg Count Reduction Tests (FECRT), rotational grazing, and combination therapies to conserve drug efficacy.