Ecological indicators of biodiversity and ecosystem responses to climate change in agroecology and nature-based solutions: a scoping review

Climate change reshapes biodiversity patterns and ecosystem processes across scales. However, ecological indicators used to track these changes remain uneven in structure and application. This study maps and synthesizes indicators applied in agroecology and nature-based solutions (NbS) for assessing biodiversity and ecosystem responses under climate change. A PRISMA-ScR-guided scoping review was conducted using Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, covering literature from 2003 to 2026. From a final dataset of 89 sources, data were extracted through a structured coding framework and synthesized using an Indicator–Scale–Response matrix and an Indicator Application Index. Findings show shared reliance on indicators such as species diversity, ecosystem productivity, carbon dynamics, ecosystem services, and resilience. Differences emerge in how these indicators are applied. Agroecology prioritizes process-based and field-level measurements grounded in local ecological interactions, while NbS emphasizes standardized and scalable metrics linked to monitoring and reporting systems. Cross-scale integration remains uneven, particularly in connecting species-level responses with ecosystem and landscape indicators. Remote sensing and Essential Biodiversity Variables provide emerging pathways for linking scales, though field integration remains partial. Results point to fragmented indicator systems that limit coherent ecological assessment across management contexts. Strengthening alignment between field observations and scalable monitoring approaches could improve comparability and usability of ecological indicators for climate adaptation and ecosystem management in agricultural landscapes.