Revisiting Gua Sentono: systematic documentation and analysis of cave art associated with Hindu religious practice in Java, Indonesia

This study presents a systematic documentation and analysis of the cave paintings at Gua Sentono, Berbah, Sleman, Yogyakarta, Java, Indonesia, currently the only known example of Hindu-related cave art in Indonesia. Close-range photogrammetry, DStretch image enhancement, digital pigment segmentation, and tracing were employed to document and analyse the paintings on the rear wall panel of Cave 1. The analysis tentatively identifies several motifs reflecting Hindu religious traditions in Java, including floral and foliage designs resembling hibiscus flowers, lotus ( padma ), pūrṇakalaśa vessel, and a figure tentatively interpreted as Gaṇeśa. The latter is characterized by an elephant-like head with large ears, small eyes, and a trunk, together with attributes resembling a paraśu (axe) and akṣamālā (rosary). The spatial arrangement of the painted and carved imagery within the cave provides further evidence for a Śaiva religious character. The Gaṇeśa painting is positioned on the eastern side facing the central monolithic liṅga - yoni , while reliefs of Durgā Mahiṣāsuramardinī and Agastya occupy the northern and southern walls, respectively, with Mahākāla and Nandiśvara reliefs positioned toward the outer northern and southern walls. This arrangement corresponds closely to the spatial organization of Śaiva deity assemblages in Central Java and Yogyakarta temples and supports the interpretation of Gua Sentono as a Śaiva sacred space. The Śaiva character of the site is consistent with the broader prominence of Śaivism in premodern Java from approximately the seventh to the fifteenth centuries CE. Gua Sentono has previously been tentatively attributed to the eighth–tenth centuries CE; however, this chronology remains unconfirmed in the absence of direct dating. Further pigment characterization and direct dating are therefore required to establish the chronology and cultural context of the paintings.