SpaceMates: A Tabletop Robotic Tangible Programming System Designed to Cultivate Spatial Reasoning Skills in Middle Childhood

Spatial reasoning is a key cognitive foundation for children’s STEM learning, yet existing tools focus on 2D tasks or programming logic, with limited integration of multidimensional spatial reasoning, embodied interaction, and feedback. We developed SpaceMates, a tangible programming game combining tabletop robots with 3D-printed blocks for children aged 7–10. Children construct 3D structures, plan routes with height variations, and compare intended and executed paths through robot feedback. Based on developmental trajectories of spatial skills in middle childhood and the Spatial Reasoning Instrument (SRI), we designed tasks for ages 7–8 and 9–10. In study with 30 participants, we examined within- and between-condition changes. Unadjusted tests suggested MR and SV gains for ages 7–8 and SO gains for ages 9–10 in SpaceMates, with greater SO gains than Baseline. In Holm-adjusted analyses, only the pre–post SO change among participants aged 9–10 remained statistically significant; after adjustment, no between-condition gain comparison remained statistically significant. Behavioral analyses characterized interaction patterns.