Community, capitals and collective action (3Cs): A new framework for understanding community forestry

Sustaining collective action has become one of the prominent challenges for community forestry in Nepal due to a changing socio-economic context. Shifting livelihood dynamics within communities are affecting the processes of participation and governance, ultimately influencing the effectiveness of community forestry institutions. This study examines the interactions among the Capitals, Community and Collective Action (3Cs) and aims to explore the role of livelihood capitals in collective action in community forestry. The study was conducted in nine community forests of the Barandabhar Forest Corridor in Nepal based on a household survey (n = 298), key informant interviews, and focus group discussions. Ordinal and binary logistic regressions were utilized to assess associations between five livelihood capitals (physical, human, natural, financial and social) and collective action in terms of participation, decision-making, and resource utilization. The results show that social capital, particularly trust, local coordination and membership of forest groups, is strongly associated with collective action. Natural capital, measured by forest quality, is strongly associated with collective participation, while forest products extraction show mixed effects. Financial gain from community forestry programs is linked to greater involvement, as are education and training (human capital). Physical capital relates to participation but less strongly than other types of capital. The results suggest that although all five capitals play a role in collective action, their magnitude varies with distinct governance activity. Through the application of the 3Cs framework, this paper argues that sustaining collective action requires strengthening multiple forms of capital rather than relying solely on institutional arrangements.