Association between the frequency of fast food consumption and depressive symptoms in Indonesia: a cross-sectional study

Abstract Fast food consumption has increased substantially in many countries due to urbanization, lifestyle changes, and the growing availability of convenient food options. Although previous studies have reported an association between unhealthy dietary patterns and depression, evidence from developing countries remains limited. This cross-sectional study examined the association between fast food consumption frequency and depressive symptoms among individuals aged 15 years and older in Indonesia using data from the fifth wave of the Indonesian Family Life Survey (IFLS-5). The analysis included 3,402 respondents with complete data on the study variables. Depressive symptoms were assessed via the 10-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), whereas fast food consumption was measured by the number of days the participants consumed fast food during the previous week. Hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted while controlling for age, sex, education, employment status, and body mass index (BMI). More frequent fast food consumption was significantly associated with greater depressive symptoms after adjustment for all covariates (B = 0.141, β = 0.038, p = .025). Younger age and unemployment were also associated with greater depressive symptoms. Although statistically significant, the association between fast food consumption frequency and depressive symptoms was small, with the addition of fast food consumption explaining only 0.1% of the variance in depressive symptoms (ΔR² = 0.001). These findings indicate an association between fast food consumption frequency and depressive symptoms but do not establish a causal relationship. Further longitudinal research is needed to examine temporal relationships and clarify the potential mechanisms underlying this association.