Dietary Lead Intake from Vegetables Grown near Industrial Pollution Sources and Associated Public Health Risks: Case Studies from North Macedonia

Lead (Pb) is a toxic element that easily accumulates in vegetables grown in contaminated areas, posing significant human health risks. In this study, spinach (Spinacia oleracea), lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.), tomatoes (Solanum lycopersicum), cucumbers (Cucumis sativus), carrots (Daucus carota subsp. sativus), and potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) collected from private gardens across 6 locations in North Macedonia (36 biological samples in total) were analyzed. Three independent analytical replicates were prepared from each biological sample throughout all preparation steps (108 analytical replicates). Lead determination was performed using ICP-OES. Dietary intake was estimated using the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) DietEx tool across four scenarios, and the margin of exposure (MoE) was calculated for cardiovascular effects, nephrotoxicity, and developmental neurotoxicity, covering ten population groups. Spinach exhibited the highest total Pb concentrations, while maximum levels (MLs) were exceeded only in cucumbers at site S4. MoE values for developmental neurotoxicity in children and nephrotoxicity in adults indicated that the daily intakes exceeded the toxicological reference points (BMDL01 and BMDL10, respectively). Potatoes, carrots, and spinach were identified as the primary contributors to exposure. Overall, this study demonstrates that regulatory compliance does not guarantee safety, as significant health concerns remain for children in these regions despite Pb concentrations being below legal limits.