Electronic waste pollution in Africa: contaminant pathways, health risks, and low-cost strategies for sustainable remediation

Electronic waste (e-waste) is one of the fastest-growing environmental challenges worldwide, with particularly severe consequences in Africa, where inadequate regulatory frameworks and informal recycling practices exacerbate environmental contamination. This review synthesizes evidence from peer-reviewed studies published over the past two decades on the occurrence, contaminant pathways, environmental behaviour, ecological and human health risks, and remediation of e-waste-derived pollutants in Africa. Unlike previous reviews that separately address contamination or remediation, this study integrates pollutant characterization with sustainable remediation strategies tailored to resource-constrained settings. The evidence indicates that informal recycling activities release potentially toxic elements (PTEs) and hazardous organic pollutants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and phthalates, resulting in persistent contamination of soils, water resources, and surrounding ecosystems. The review critically evaluates low-cost remediation technologies, highlighting the potential of biochar-assisted phytoremediation for immobilizing PTEs and restoring contaminated soils while emphasizing that comparative field-scale evidence remains limited. Key research gaps include the need for standardized remediation assessment, long-term field validation, and stronger integration of circular economy principles into e-waste management. Addressing these challenges will support the development of scalable, sustainable remediation strategies to mitigate the environmental and public health impacts of e-waste across Africa.