The courtyard benefits framework: ecological, microclimatic and social contributions to health and well-being

Urban densification, climate change, and unequal access to green space have intensified the need for small-scale green infrastructure to support health and well-being. Courtyards are common across many urban and architectural traditions, yet their contributions are often examined separately through architectural, microclimatic, ecological, or social lenses. This scoping review asks: how do urban courtyards contribute to the health and well-being of cities, and how can this evidence inform sustainable and inclusive urban planning? Following the PRISMA-ScR framework, we identified peer-reviewed studies via Web of Science and Scopus and screened them against predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. We included and analysed 84 studies thematically. The evidence shows that courtyards contribute to thermal regulation, improved air quality, biodiversity support, social interaction, cultural continuity, and restorative experiences. The most frequent themes were environmental benefits, courtyard typology, thermal comfort, energy performance, green infrastructure, and well-being and health-related outcomes. However, the literature remains dominated by architectural and thermal performance studies, with limited integration of urban planning, equity, public health and well-being, and policy perspectives. In response, this paper proposes the Courtyard Benefits Framework, which conceptualises courtyards as small-scale urban green infrastructure that can connect ecological, microclimatic, social, and well-being and health-related functions.