Exploring socio-spatial vulnerabilities in North Macedonia to develop a multiple energy vulnerability concept

Abstract Energy vulnerability does not capture the deprivation of all essential services, making some forms of deprivation possibly hidden in times of crisis. We explored the expansion of energy vulnerability in the context of the polycrisis in North Macedonia, based on survey data representative by age, gender, and ethnicity, using confirmatory factor analysis to estimate latent vulnerability variables and their association with various socio-spatial characteristics. We grouped different energy services to represent energy vulnerability ; combined the energy services with an extended panel of energy-related services, such as water and communications, to represent multiple energy vulnerability ; and added non-energy essential services to the mix of energy and the expanded panel of energy-related services to represent material deprivation . Seven common socio-spatial characteristics are positively associated with energy vulnerability, multiple energy vulnerability, and material deprivation: use of public transport; absence of central heating; absence of energy efficiency measures; income insufficient to cover basic needs; reliance on others for basic needs; caregiving responsibilities; and ethnic-minority status. This high overlap between the socio-spatial features that are associated with higher levels of the three types of vulnerabilities argues for a consideration of a defined list of essential services, both energy and non-energy, when studying energy vulnerability, to avoid hidden forms of deprivation and overlooked socio-spatial features that are associated with higher levels of deprivation across compounded essential services. The new concept of multiple energy vulnerability expands the scope of energy services considered when discussing energy vulnerability, as it reveals new socio-spatial features that are related to deprivation across compounded energy-related services.