Physical education and the formation of al-Insān al-Kāmil: integrative frameworks in classical islamic philosophical thought

Abstract Physical education has rarely been examined through the perspective of classical Islamic philosophy. Although Muslim philosophers did not develop physical education as a separate academic discipline, they discussed bodily cultivation within broader accounts of ethics, medicine, and human development. This study explores how these discussions can contribute to contemporary thinking about physical education. The study uses qualitative conceptual analysis and textual interpretation of selected classical Islamic philosophical works. It draws on primary Arabic sources and established scholarly translations, focusing on the writings of Ibn Sina, Al-Razi, Al-Farabi, Al-Kindi, Ibn Miskawayh, and Nasir al-Din Al-Tusi. The analysis identifies recurring concepts related to the body, health, moral development, and education, and compares them with contemporary discussions in physical education and educational philosophy. The findings suggest that two concepts, Iʿtidāl (balance and moderation) and Takāmul (integration or wholeness), play a central role in the classical Islamic understanding of human development. Across the texts examined, physical activity is connected not only to health but also to character formation, self-discipline, and social responsibility. The study also identifies several points of comparison with contemporary ideas such as physical literacy, holistic education, and values-based learning, while recognizing important differences in their philosophical foundations. This study offers a theoretical framework for understanding physical education through a neglected strand of the Islamic philosophical tradition. Rather than presenting empirical findings, it highlights concepts that may broaden current discussions about the aims of physical education and provide a basis for future research, particularly in culturally diverse and Muslim-majority educational contexts. It should be noted that classical Islamic philosophers did not develop a theory of physical education as a discrete institutional field. Rather, this study reconstructs a coherent philosophical framework for bodily cultivation from texts in which physical practice was embedded within broader accounts of ethics, medicine, and human formation.