Effects of Visual Display Modes and Auditory Cues of Teleoperation Interfaces on Remote Drivers’ Presence, Spatial Perception, and Emotional Experience

Automated vehicle teleoperation interfaces (AVTIs) require effective visual and auditory displays to support remote driving. This study investigates how visual display modes and auditory cues affect remote drivers’ presence, spatial perception, and emotional experience. A 2 (auditory cues: with vs. without) × 3 (visual display: two-dimensional [2D], 360° panorama, immersive virtual reality [IVR]) between-subjects experiment was conducted with 66 participants. Presence, spatial perception, emotional experience, and electrocardiogram data were collected. Results showed that visual display mode significantly influenced presence, spatial perception, and emotional experience. Compared with 2D, IVR enhanced presence, perceived distance-estimation accuracy, detail memory, and calmness, but increased distance-estimation errors. The 360° panorama improved distance-estimation accuracy and detail memory. Auditory cues enhanced detail memory and improved perceived distance-estimation accuracy only under low visual immersion, supporting a saturation effect. Three design principles are proposed regarding depth compensation, selective audio use, and state-based auditory feedback.