Unlocking the potential of millipedes: A review of their nutritional value, chemical defenses, ethnomedicinal applications, and human health risks

Abstract Millipedes (class Diplopoda) represent an underexplored biological resource with considerable potential for contributing to global food and nutritional security and pharmaceutical discovery. With more than 12,000 described species, millipedes posses diverse chemical defenses, including quinones, phenols, cyanogenic compounds, and alkaloids. Some of these compounds have demonstrated antimicrobial, potential neuroactive and repellent properties. Ethnomedicinal uses span multiple cultures, with documented applications in the management of infections, epilepsy, and parasitic diseases. Nutritionally, certain species provide essential amino acids, fatty acids, and minerals, though their consumption remains limited due to concerns regarding toxicity and potential adverse health effects. This review synthesizes current knowledge of millipede distribution, nutritional composition, bioactive compounds, and ethnomedicinal uses while addressing potential health risks, such as dermatitis and toxin exposure. We highlight their largely unexplored potential as a sustainable resource for food security and drug discovery, emphasizing the need for further research to optimize their safe utilization.