Did bear behavior influence neanderthal and modern human symbolic activities in caves? integrating archaeological, ecological, and ethnographic evidence

Since the discovery of Drachenloch Cave and the rise of the Paleolithic `bear cult` hypothesis a century ago, major efforts were made to refute this classic paradigm. Amid ongoing debates regarding the anthropogenic origin of Middle Pleistocene bear-related sites, it has become clear that bears were significant agents in cave site formation. We highlight the potential importance of anthropogenic and natural bear remains for Paleolithic humans after the onset of systematic cave habitation in Europe. Based on the archaeological and paleontological record of bears in Late Pleistocene western and central Europe, we propose that the expansion of habitual cave use from the Middle Paleolithic intensified human encounters with bears, particularly cave bears, leading to niche overlap and growing human interest in these animals. The variety of bear-derived traces, such as hibernation dens, claw marks, displaced materials, and the remains of the bears themselves created a distinctive landscape marked by the presence of the animal. Bear-induced traces may have inspired corresponding human traces, partially through imitation, which later evolved into additional symbolic expressions during the Upper Paleolithic. Anatomical and behavioral resemblances between humans and bears may have deepened this fascination, as further suggested by the widespread cultural significance of bears. We highlight the potential role of animals as a plausible driving force behind certain Paleolithic cultural developments.