Blood companions: the Holocene record of ectoparasites

Abstract The Holocene fossil record of human and animal ectoparasites comprises specimens from sites worldwide, providing a unique perspective on human mobility, domestication and zoonotic disease. Lice, fleas, bedbugs, louse flies, ticks and mites have been recovered from sites with diverse preservation conditions, ranging from desiccated deposits to permafrost. Relevant contexts include mummies, coprolites, caves and house floors. The overall record includes 52 taxa from in excess of 110 sites from different chronological periods extending from Asia to South America. The global geographic distribution of ectoparasites, along with patterns of diversity and the abundance of records from different periods, offers insight into their relationships with humans and animals, both wild and domestic. From the earliest records of human lice in Brazil and the Levant to the spread of fleas from the New World to the Old World, the close association of ectoparasites with their hosts provides refined information regarding the development of immediate human environments.