ADHD and Autism in Online Higher Education: A Scoping Review and Thematic Synthesis of Reported Challenges

Studies involving students with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or autism have reported a range of challenges in higher education that may affect academic success and retention. Yet, most existing reviews focus on in-person settings at primary or secondary levels. Few studies address online higher education specifically for students with ADHD and/or autism, leaving a critical evidence gap. This scoping review and thematic synthesis, therefore, examines challenges reported in studies involving students with ADHD and/or autism in online higher education. Following the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) methodology, the Population-Concept-Context (PCC) framework and the PRISMA-ScR guidelines, a focused database search, supplemented by backward and forward citation searching, resulted in the inclusion of 39 studies. The findings were synthesised thematically. Six analytical themes were identified: academic and cognitive challenges, social and communication barriers, institutional support and accessibility, technological issues, emotional and mental health impacts, and COVID-19-related challenges. Although publications have increased since 2020, relatively few studies specifically examine ADHD and autism in online higher education, with many considering students with these conditions within broader disability or neurodivergent populations. Evidence concerning students with co-occurring ADHD and autism was particularly limited. The findings highlight priorities for inclusive digital learning environments, institutional support and future research focused specifically on students with ADHD and/or autism.