Electric vehicles versus drones for mountainous last-mile delivery

Mountainous rural areas face significant challenges for last-mile parcel delivery due to low demand density, poor road conditions, and high transportation costs. This study develops a cost-benefit analysis framework to compare electric vehicle (EV) and drone delivery modes in mountainous terrain. The framework includes a slope-dependent energy consumption model for EVs, a three-dimensional grid-based path planning algorithm for drones accounting for vertical takeoff and landing costs, and optimization models for charging station placement and signal relay tower deployment. Using empirical data from a postal delivery network in mountainous ZhaoDian Township, China, we find that EV delivery is more cost-effective for high-demand, clustered areas, while drone delivery is economically viable for remote, low-demand destinations with limited road access. Demand uncertainty and weather-related flight cancellations reduce the economic viability of drone-only systems. Based on these findings, we derive policy recommendations for establishing a comprehensive cost-benefit analysis framework to evaluate EV and UAV delivery in mountainous regions.