Democratizing 3D indoor data capture: Smartphone-based ToF and structure from motion integration using iterative closest point

This study presents a workflow that integrates an iPhone’s Time-of-Flight (ToF) data with Structure from Motion (SfM) photogrammetry through ICP (Iterative Closest Point)‑based scale transfer, enabling accurate, without control point 3D interior scanning. Validation in four rooms showed ToF-only errors exceeded 40 cm and were reduced to 10–20 cm with a gimbal. The integrated ToF-SfM approach further improved accuracy, achieving deviations of under 5 cm and a 2D floor plan RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) of 2–2.5 cm. This portable, cost-effective solution enhances ToF accuracy using SfM geometry, enabling rapid, accurate 3D capture in the tested residential environment (72 m2, four rooms) without control points.