Wireless bioelectronic control architectures for muscle-powered biohybrid robotic systems

Wireless bioelectronic interfaces are increasingly used to control tissue-engineered, muscle-powered biohybrid robotic systems. However, a unifying engineering framework linking device design to system-level control remains underdeveloped. Here, we formulate wireless control in biohybrid robotics as a coupled co-design problem integrating signal delivery, spatial selectivity, scalability, sensing and feedback, controller implementation, biological life support, and interface stability. We analyze three representative actuation and control strategies—wireless electrical stimulation, wireless optoelectronic stimulation, and neuromuscular integration—which operate in distinct regimes with characteristic trade-offs. Across these modalities, the tissue–device interface emerges as a key constraint governing the interplay among electrical or optical signal delivery, circuit performance, sensing, and biomechanical response. We outline practical design principles spanning electromagnetic field distribution, circuit architecture, actuator mechanics, multi-actuator addressing, and closed-loop control. Rather than treating neural organoids as an inevitable end point, we compare conventional electronic controllers, neuronal culture–silicon interfaces, and organoid–microelectrode array systems as alternative trajectories toward closed-loop autonomy. This system-level perspective provides design guidelines for stable, scalable, and application-driven biohybrid robotic systems.