Visual Transformations and Pedagogical Function of Illustrations in Printed Malaysian Biology Textbooks: Rethinking Traditional and Digital Visuals for Scientific Literacy

Textbooks remain key instructional resources in science education, particularly in biology, representations where visual representations play an important role in simplifying abstract concepts and facilitating students’ understanding. In many countries, governments allocate substantial resources to textbook production to provide equitable access to quality education; however, few studies have examined changes in illustrations across curriculum reform. This study analyzed illustrations from four upper-secondary biology textbooks in Malaysia representing two curricula: the 2001 Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) and the 2021 Kurikulum Standard Sekolah Menengah (KSSM). Visual representations were categorized by illustration type and instructional function using validated instruments, with reliability ensured through expert review and inter‑rater agreement. The analysis of 1,869 illustrations reveals that diagrams (n = 797) and photographs (n = 603) remain the dominant visual forms, confirming their continued central role in representing biological structures and processes. Analytical functions (n = 1,397) predominated across both curricula, reflecting the continued emphasis on didactic approaches in biology instruction). Chi square tests confirmed significant associations between visual types and pedagogical functions (p < 0.001). Textbooks aligned with the newer curricula exhibit greater visual diversity and complexity through the inclusion of infographics, QR codes, and augmented reality elements, indicating a shift toward stronger digital integration and more multimodal presentation formats.