Family income, positive assets and childhood experiences, and social support : a moderated mediation study of early developmental outcomes

Background In British Columbia, approximately one in three children starts school with developmental vulnerability in at least one area, a pattern consistently linked to family income and reflective of wider inequalities in school readiness. While income gradients in early childhood development are well documented, less is known about how modifiable daily childhood experiences (PACEs) mediate this gradient, and whether social support conditions the strength of that mediation at the population level. This study examined the extent to which PACEs, operationalized through indicators of childhood experiences, mediate the association between family income and early developmental outcomes at kindergarten, and how social support moderates the family income-PACEs pathway. Methods This cross-sectional study used linked population-based data from the Early Development Instrument (teacher-reported) and the Childhood Experiences Questionnaire (caregiver-rated) for 8,029 kindergarten children in BC who were assessed between 2019 and 2023. The PACEs composite captured four recommended daily practices: adequate sleep, nutritious diet, limited screen time, and enriching interactions. Three EDI subdomains served as outcomes: Approaches to Learning, Hyperactivity and Inattention, and Interest in Literacy, Numeracy, and Memory. Mediation and moderated mediation analyses were conducted, adjusting for sex, age, English language learner status, special needs designation, and assessment year. Results Income gradients were observed across all outcomes. Children in the lowest-income category scored 0.41, 0.37, and 0.26 standard deviations below the highest-income group on Approaches to Learning, Hyperactivity and Inattention, and Interest in Literacy, Numeracy, and Memory, respectively. PACEs partially mediated these associations, accounting for 22%, 13%, and 26% of the gradients in the three outcomes, respectively. The PACEs-mediated pathway was strongest among children from the lowest-income families with the least social support and weakest among those with the highest social support, suggesting that social connectedness partially compensates for economic hardship, but children facing both low income and low social support face the greatest developmental risk. Conclusion PACEs represent a modifiable pathway linking family income to early developmental outcomes, and social support partially buffers this relationship. Programs that strengthen both children's everyday experiences and caregivers' social connectedness may reduce income-related developmental inequities, particularly among families with the least social support.