Multiple Diplomatic Centers

Abstract Diplomatic interactions between Japanese Shogun Ashikaga Yoshimitsu and Ming emperor Zhu Di, together with the Ming-Japanese tally trade, have received lively scholarly discussion. This article examines a period before the tally trade momentarily became the major diplomatic channel in Sino-Japanese exchanges. By cross-referencing and comparing sources from China and Japan, the author highlights how various players such as Zhu Yuanzhang, Buddhist monks, Prince Kaneyoshi, Go-Enyū tennō, and Kyushu warrior leaders participated in overseas exchanges. The author argues that the lively diplomatic exchanges between Kyushu and China confirm the existence of multiple diplomatic centers beyond Kyoto. The author proposes seeing Ming's rulership in this light and rethinking it in a broader East Asian context. In particular, Zhu Yuanzhang's flexible policies and careful examination of overseas envoys demonstrate that early Ming's overseas policies cannot be summarized simply as conservative and inward-looking. Instead, they show a high degree of openness and variation in the conduct of overseas affairs. By comparing diplomatic exchanges written in different languages and from different sides, the author argues for the need to move beyond political and territorial boundaries to consider important concepts such as rulership, empire, and imperial order in a connected and transregional perspective.