Environmental, host and evolutionary drivers influencing tick distribution and the persistent challenges facing integrated tick management

Abstract Ticks are globally significant ectoparasites of livestock, transmitting pathogens and causing substantial economic losses. Their distribution is shaped by ecological, climatic, and host‑related factors, while control strategies face persistent challenges such as acaricide resistance and limited vaccine efficacy. This review synthesizes recent evidence on the environmental and host drivers of tick distribution and critically evaluates molecular mechanisms of resistance, vaccine development, and biological control approaches. The review was conducted through a systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and AJOL using defined keywords and inclusion criteria to ensure transparency and reproducibility. Key findings highlight that climate change accelerates tick population expansion, host mobility facilitates geographic spread, and indiscriminate acaricide use intensifies selection pressure for resistance. Molecular studies reveal target‑site mutations, metabolic detoxification, and transport mechanisms contributing to multiclase resistance in Rhipicephalus microplus . Advances in recombinant vaccines (e.g., Bm86 variants, Subolesin, salivary antigens) and entomopathogenic fungi ( Metarhizium anisopliae , Beauveria bassiana ) show promise but require integration into adaptive frameworks. We propose an evidence‑based model of Integrated Tick Management that combines ecological surveillance, acaricide rotation, biological agents, and vaccination, guided by resistance diagnostics and climate monitoring. This integrative approach offers sustainable prospects for reducing tick burdens in livestock systems.