Who speaks up? Voice and community belonging in Australian local government

Much has been written about the value of responding to community voice, yet we know far less about who expresses that voice. Using a nationally representative dataset of 65,336 observations, we analyse the association between direct local political voice and individual characteristics, distinguishing occasional from frequent engagement. Occasional voice is relatively common, but sustained participation is rare. Consistent with theory, educational attainment and community belonging are positively associated with speaking up. Unemployment is also positively associated with voice, while gender differences emerge across the models. We further observe a marked reduction in voice in 2022, a period marked by COVID-19. Overall, around one-third of citizens voice opinions, but participation is concentrated among specific groups. These patterns matter because many promised benefits of participation depend not merely on whether citizens speak, but on who speaks. We conclude by outlining implications for practitioners seeking broader and more equitable engagement.