Temporal dynamics of multidimensional engagement in gamified and traditional flipped classrooms: behavioral, cognitive, and emotional trajectories

Purpose Existing research on gamified flipped classrooms (GFC) has often treated engagement as an overall outcome, leaving limited understanding of how behavioral, cognitive and emotional engagement change over time. Design/methodology/approach Grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT) and Merrill’s First Principles of Instruction (FPI), this three-wave quasi-experimental mixed-methods study examined engagement trajectories among undergraduate software engineering students in gamified and traditional flipped classrooms across a 16-week semester. Findings Questionnaire data and post-intervention interviews showed limited and non-sustained differences between the two instructional conditions. More importantly, behavioral engagement remained comparatively stable and cognitive engagement showed only limited temporal variation, whereas emotional engagement was relatively more sensitive to time. Qualitative findings indicated that behavioral engagement was largely maintained by instructional routines and task requirements, cognitive engagement was shaped by pragmatic task-oriented strategies and emotional engagement was more responsive to changing course experiences. Research limitations/implications These findings demonstrate that engagement dimensions do not necessarily develop uniformly within the same instructional environment and support a dimension-sensitive approach to GFC design. Originality/value This study extends GFC research by moving beyond overall or short-term measures of student engagement to examine the semester-long trajectories of behavioral, cognitive and emotional engagement simultaneously. The findings show that these engagement dimensions do not develop uniformly: behavioral engagement remains relatively stable and cognitive engagement shows limited temporal variation, whereas emotional engagement is comparatively more time-sensitive. By integrating SDT with Merrill’s FPI and combining three-wave quantitative data with qualitative explanations, the study provides a dimension-sensitive and temporally informed understanding of how gamification operates within structured flipped classrooms.