Modeling employability mismatch of TVET graduates in Malaysia: a total interpretive structural modeling approach

This study investigates the factors contributing to employability mismatch among Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) graduates in Malaysia, focusing on horizontal mismatch between graduates’ fields of study and employment. Although graduate mismatch has been widely discussed, limited research explains how its determinants interact within the TVET system. This study applied Total Interpretive Structural Modelling (TISM) to identify and interpret hierarchical relationships among these factors. The factors were identified through a structured literature review and stakeholder consultation, and their relationships were examined using the Structural Self-Interaction Matrix, Initial Reachability Matrix, Final Reachability Matrix, level partitioning, and MICMAC analysis. The study included 21 factors: 17 literature-derived factors and 4 context-specific factors (the role of educational institutions in supporting career choice, employment status or position, institutional reputation, and industrial training programmes). The factors represented internal, external, interpersonal, institutional, and sociodemographic dimensions. The findings indicate that employability mismatch is shaped by a complex, interconnected system. TISM positioned labour market conditions, gender, and socioeconomic background at Level 4, reflecting their location at the base of the interpretive hierarchy. However, MICMAC analysis using the mean-based threshold of 19 classified labour market conditions and socioeconomic background as independent or driving factors, whereas gender was classified as autonomous. Personal interests of graduates were also classified as an independent or driving factor despite their Level 3 position. These results show that TISM and MICMAC provide complementary interpretations: TISM explains hierarchical position and directional relationships, while MICMAC indicates relative driving and dependence powers. This distinction improves conceptual clarity and prevents hierarchical placement from being incorrectly interpreted as direct evidence of high driving power across the entire system. The resulting framework supports targeted institutional and policy interventions to improve alignment between TVET graduate preparation and labour market needs and provides a basis for future quantitative validation and predictive modelling.