Technology-Supported Interventions and Learners’ Metacognition: A Three-Level Meta-Analysis

Abstract Despite the growing use of educational technologies, including AI and generative AI, how these technologies support learners’ metacognition remains insufficiently understood. The present study synthesised 33 studies using a three-level meta-analysis. Technology-supported interventions were associated with higher metacognitive outcomes on average, Hedges’ g = 0.653, 95% CI [0.520, 0.786], although heterogeneity was substantial. Technology type did not significantly moderate effects. Exploratory analyses showed descriptively larger estimates for interventions with technology-use guidance, immediate feedback, and system-directed learner control, but none remained significant after BH-FDR adjustment (adjusted p = .095 for each). Because these features overlapped, the patterns are hypothesis-generating rather than evidence of independent moderator effects. Interventions most frequently supported evaluation/reflection, monitoring, and strategic control, whereas planning was less consistently represented. Importantly, 77 of 94 effects (81.9%) concerned metacognitive regulation, and 90 (95.7%) relied on self-report measures, indicating that the pooled association primarily reflects self-reported metacognitive regulation. Overall, the findings suggest that technology-supported interventions can support metacognitive outcomes, while these effects should be interpreted in light of the specific regulatory processes targeted and how metacognitive outcomes are measured.