Curriculum-Aligned AR for Secondary Physics: Learning and Engagement in Circular Motion and Magnetic Force

Static diagrams inherently flatten the dynamic, three-dimensional interplay of forces and motion, leaving secondary students reliant on imagination to grasp invisible vectors—a challenge consistently documented in high-stakes physics examinations. While augmented reality (AR) offers a promising medium to externalise these abstractions, rigorous classroom evidence comparing theory-driven, curriculum-aligned AR with standard instructional materials remains scarce. Grounded in Variation Theory, Cognitive Load Theory, and Constructivism, this study evaluated a smartphone-based AR application featuring seven 3-D models tightly mapped to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education (HKDSE) physics syllabus. Evaluating N = 171 Form 4 students (Grade 10 equivalent, aged 15–16) across nine classes in seven secondary schools, we employed a quasi-experimental pre-test/post-test crossover design comparing AR against equivalent textbook images. Learning outcomes were measured using brief, 5-item HKDSE-aligned conceptual assessments, while classroom engagement was tracked through structured observations of visual on-task behaviour and spontaneous questions, supplemented by an 8-item student perception survey (N = 103). Paired- and independent-sample t-tests were used to evaluate pre-/post-test gains and group differences. Results confirmed that AR produced significantly larger conceptual gains than textbook images for both circular motion (d = 0.32, small-to-medium effect) and magnetic force (d = 0.48, medium effect). Furthermore, AR sustained significantly higher visual on-task behaviour and elicited more spontaneous content-relevant questions across classes (sign test, p = 0.008). Student perceptions confirmed that the majority found AR interesting (81.6%) and visually superior to textbooks (73.8%). We conclude that short, curriculum-embedded AR visualisations grounded in systematic variation enhance conceptual performance and foster an inquiry-oriented classroom atmosphere.