From Regional Evidence to National Implications: Life Cycle Assessment of Pulp–Paper Production Modes, Collaborative Strategies, and Energy Transition in China

Abstract The pulp and paper industry in emerging economies faces dual pressures to decarbonize while upgrading. This study applies a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment, using 10,000 CNY product value as the functional unit, to compare stand-alone and integrated production modes in China's Guangxi region. Results show integrated mills achieve the lowest impacts per economic unit, with a global warming potential of 1398.7–6069.4 kg CO2-eq per 10,000 CNY, outperforming stand-alone setups (1820.2–7669.7 kg CO2-eq). Benefits arise from eliminating intermediate processes and enhancing on-site synergies. While regional collaboration reduces impacts, it does not achieve the same level of systemic efficiency as full integration within the context of this study. Energy structure is the key driver: maximizing internal recovery and adopting renewables can lower total endpoint impacts by 19.3%–84.0%. A hierarchical pathway prioritizing full integration, regional symbiosis, and energy transition is proposed for sectoral decarbonization.