Effects of Visual-Proprioceptive Integration of Hand Position on Immersive Experience and Performance

We investigated how visual–proprioceptive conflicts regarding perceived hand position alter sense of embodiment and our actions during head-mounted display (HMD) virtual reality (VR). Participants hit virtual objects with virtual mallets (training phase) while we manipulated the amount and type of virtual hand offset, the visibility of virtual hands, and the presence of vibration cues. The manipulations differentially affected reported presence, perceived body ownership, and sense of agency. To examine the aftereffects of this training, participants were subsequently asked to strike a stationary virtual target without any visual representation of virtual hands or mallets. Hand offset during training biased the direction, and increased the variability, of these test strikes. A follow-up extinction experiment found little sign of attenuation across five consecutive strikes. These findings suggest brief exposures to visual–proprioceptive conflicts can bias perception and action beyond the immediate training context.